Introduction
“Relativism
is such a vast and a multi- faceted topic that it appears in huge areas of
human inquiry, ranging from pop culture to current technical journals in
philosophy. In discussions on relativism, the famous quotation from the
controversial work of Allan Bloom i.e. The
Closing of the American Mind, is often cited, ‘There is one thing a professor can be absolutely sure of; almost every
student entering the university believes, or says he believes, that truth is
relative.’[1]
Definition
Epistemology or the theory of knowledge is one of
the main branches of philosophy.[2] It
is concerned with the nature, sources and limits of knowledge.[3]
The reflective character of the discipline of epistemology is seen in the very
etymology of the word ‘epistemology’. It comes from the Greek episteme and logos both of which mean the same thing (science or knowledge), it
gives us the idea of knowledge of knowledge.[4]
Any
doctrine could be called relativism which holds that something exists, or has
certain properties or features, or is true or in some sense obtains, not simply
but only in relation to something else. Relativism is the denial that there are
certain kinds of universal truths.[5]
Epistemic relativism is an account of what makes a system of reasoning or
belief revision a good one as relativistic if it is sensitive to facts about the
person or group using the system.[6]
History
The
first articulation of relativism (at least in its epistemic form) from the
history of philosophy appears to be given by Protagoras in his work Truth. What he says in his work is that
what appears or seems to be true to a person is true to that person and anyone
else to whom it seems so. His is an extreme version of relativism. According to
him knowledge and truth are relative to the person contemplating the
proposition in question. He denies any standard or criterion higher than the
individual by which claims to truth and knowledge are made. [7]
Relativism
has been present in various ways and at stretches of time throughout the long
history of Western thought from the ‘pre- Socratic’ period up through the 21st
Century. One of the famous enlightenment philosophers Giambattista Vico (1688-1744)
developed an idea of epistemology in which truth is understood as something
that is made. He says that it is reasonable to accept what the ancient Italian
sages believed namely “The true is precisely what is made”, and ‘human truth is
what man puts together and makes in the act of knowing it.[8] I
personally find it difficult to agree with this kind of epistemology.
Epistemology and Relativism
The
relativity of truth and value is a demonstrated fact which many contemporary
writers have taken for granted. From the studies done in the past, it has come
to be known that valuation, judgement and cognition among varied cultures and
also among people of the same culture are quite different and unique from every
other person. Relativism makes distinctions between values and norms to such an
extent that it destroys the possibility of morality and also of truth. This can
eventually lead to skepticism, nihilism, irrationalism and finally return to
barbarism. To add to this, human culture is at stake or ceases to survive when
people find it difficult to gauge a particular situation and take a firm stand
on matters of truth and value. Relativism at the same time also has a positive
aspect in which it frees us from considering our personal insights as ones
which are necessarily true. It also frees us from thoughts which are rooted in
a stagnant, absolutistic design of truth and hence enables us to assimilate
some kinds of truth which are otherwise incomprehensible.[9]
Epistemology
is that branch of philosophy which is concerned with human knowledge as
mentioned earlier. However this might seem strange because there are very many
things that we take for granted as known to us. Skepticism creeps in when we
speak about the possibility of knowledge. Skepticism is basically an attitude
which holds that true knowledge is doubtful or in other words it is difficult
to take a particular stance on any matter. Thus it can be said that epistemology
is closely linked with skepticism in a kind of symbiotic relationship. Hence “Epistemology may be defined as a critical
and systematic reflection on the possibility, nature, sources and structure of
knowledge.”[10]
The
tripartite analysis of knowledge has remained the standard of knowledge among
epistemologists and has also inspired me to a great extent. The first condition
for anything to be called knowledge is the existence of beliefs i.e.
propositions that are judged to be true or false. The second condition for
knowledge is truth and the third condition is the evidence or justification for
believing something to be true.[11]
Epistemological Relativism
Relativism
is an idea which says that there is no absolute or universal truth. To put it
positively, it is good or true for me only when it appeals to or fulfills my
interests and biases.[12]
Here a situation arises wherein one system is best for one person or group,
while another one which is quite different is best for another.[13]
Epistemological relativism is seen both in philosophical works as well as in
ordinary day to day conversation or debates where a person claims that
something that is true for the other person needn’t or is not true for him/
her.[14]
Problem of Epistemological
Relativism
Many
philosophers find epistemological relativism to be a dangerous doctrine.
However it is difficult to find healthy arguments supporting this kind of a
negative attitude. The first problem of epistemological relativism is that it
is nihilistic. This problem arises because it simply gives up on the task of
clearly distinguishing good reasoning from bad. The second problem is that it
threatens the connection or link between cognitive inquiry and truth. If the
epistemic relativist is right then the other group holding some other belief
can’t be right or true to the same extent as the epistemic relativist is. Both
good cognition methods can’t always lead to true beliefs.[15]
Conclusion
“The idea that every truth claim, every item
of knowledge has some standard by means of which it is evaluated or understood
to be a truth claim, as opposed to merely a belief, seems important for a
general theory of what it is to come know something. This point while not
unique to relativism about knowledge is one that is important in general for
doing epistemology.” However the definition of epistemic relativism is
self- defeating or leads to solipsistic consequences and hence it should be
rejected.[16]
[1] Timothy Mosteller, Relativism: A Guide for the Perplexed
(London: Continuum, 2008) 1.
[2] George Karuvelil, “Epistemology
(Western),” in ACPI Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, Vol. 1, editor. in.
chief. Johnson J. Puthenpurackal (Bangalore: Asian Trading Corporation, 2010)
452.
[3] Stephen P. Stich, “Epistemic
Relativism,” in Routledge Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, Vol. 3, gen. ed.
Edward Craig (London: Routledge, 1998) 362.
[4] Karuvelil, “Epistemology
(Western),” 452- 453.
[5] Mosteller, Relativism, 2.
[6] Stich, “Epistemic Relativism,” 360.
[7] Mosteller, Relativism, 3.
[8] Mosteller, Relativism, 4- 5.
[9] Gordon D. Kaufman, Relativism, Knowledge and Faith (London:
University of Chicago Press, 1960) 3- 5.
[10] Karuvelil, “Epistemology
(Western),” 452.
[11] Karuvelil, “Epistemology
(Western),” 453.
[12] Stich, “Epistemic Relativism,”
360.
[13] Karuvelil, “Epistemology (Western),”
454.
[14] Mosteller, Relativism, 11.
[15] Stich, “Epistemic Relativism,”
361.
[16] Mosteller, Relativism, 29.
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